Q1. Distinguish between the Human Development Index (HDI) and the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) with special reference to India. Why is the IHDI considered a better indicator of inclusive growth? (Answer in 150 words) 10
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index by the UNDP measuring a country's average achievement in three key dimensions: a long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living. It reflects the potential human development a country can achieve if development gains were distributed equally.
The Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) adjusts the HDI score downwards to account for inequalities in the distribution of health, education, and income. It represents the actual level of human development, with the difference between HDI and IHDI indicating the loss due to inequality. For India, while its HDI rank was 134 in 2022, its HDI value suffered a loss of 31.1% when adjusted for inequality, reflecting deep-seated disparities.
IHDI is considered a better indicator of inclusive growth because it moves beyond national averages, which can mask severe inequalities. While HDI might show progress, IHDI reveals how equitably this progress is shared. In a country like India, with significant income disparities and unequal access to services, IHDI provides a more accurate picture of real, broad-based development, aligning with the goal of Sabka Saath Sabka Vikas (inclusive growth).
Q2. What are the challenges before the Indian economy when the world is moving away from free trade and multilateralism to protectionism and bilateralism? How can these challenges be met?
(Answer in 150 words) 10
The global shift from free trade and multilateralism to protectionism and bilateralism poses significant challenges to India’s export-oriented growth strategy.
Challenges: India's economy faces shrinking export markets due to a global slowdown and increasing tariff and non-tariff barriers like carbon border taxes from developed nations. This protectionism disrupts global supply chains and undermines the rules-based order of multilateral institutions like the WTO, which is crucial for developing economies. The geopolitical tensions and trade wars between major powers, such as the U.S. and China, further create economic uncertainty and threaten to fragment the global economy.
Meeting the Challenges: These challenges can be met through a multi-pronged approach.
Domestic Strengthening: India must focus on strengthening its domestic growth levers and building resilience through the ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ mission.
Strategic Bilateralism: Proactively negotiating balanced Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with key partners like the EU and U.K. is essential to secure market access.
Multilateral Leadership: India should use platforms like the G-20 to champion the cause of the Global South, advocating for a reformed, equitable global trade order and positioning itself as a vital link in new, resilient global value chains.
Q3. Explain the factors influencing the decision of the farmers on the selection of high value crops in India. (Answer in 150 words) 10
The decision of Indian farmers to cultivate high-value crops (HVCs) is influenced by a complex interplay of economic, policy, and agro-climatic factors, marking a shift from subsistence to commercial agriculture.
Economic factors are paramount, with market prices and profitability being the primary drivers. The potential for higher income from crops like cotton, sugarcane, spices, and horticultural produce encourages farmers to diversify. However, this is balanced against risks like high price volatility and rising input costs for fertilisers and labour.
Government policies play a crucial role. While the Minimum Support Price (MSP) regime provides a safety net, its skew towards wheat and paddy discourages diversification. Conversely, specific government missions and incentives promoting oilseeds, pulses, or horticulture actively encourage a shift to HVCs. Export policies, access to credit, and crop insurance schemes also significantly influence farmers' risk appetite.
Finally, agro-climatic and technological factors are fundamental. Crop selection depends on soil type, climate, and critically, the availability of irrigation, as HVCs are often water-intensive. Access to quality inputs like high-yielding, climate-resilient seeds and modern farming technology is essential for ensuring productivity and profitability.
Q4. Elaborate the scope and significance of supply chain management of agricultural commodities in India. (Answer in 150 words) 10
Supply Chain Management (SCM) of agricultural commodities in India encompasses a wide range of activities from procurement, storage, and transportation to processing, marketing, and final consumption. Its scope covers the entire value chain, including first-mile connectivity from farmgate to mandis, warehousing (including cold storage), and last-mile delivery to consumers.
The significance of an efficient SCM is multi-faceted. Economically, it is crucial for doubling farmers' income by preventing post-harvest losses, which amount to approximately ₹1,52,790 crore annually. By improving market access through platforms like e-NAM and empowering Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs), it ensures remunerative prices and reduces distress sales for the 86% of India's small and marginal farmers. Strategically, it ensures food security, controls inflation, and enhances global competitiveness to boost agri-exports, which are currently below potential. Furthermore, sustainable SCM addresses environmental degradation across the value chain.
Q5. The fusion energy programme in India has steadily evolved over the past few decades. Mention India’s contributions to the international fusion energy project – International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). What will be the implications of the success of this project for the future of global energy? (Answer in 150 words) 10
India's fusion energy programme is highlighted by its role as a full member of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project, a global collaboration to prove fusion energy's viability. India is making substantial in-kind contributions, with its industries fabricating critical components like the massive cryostat, cryo-distribution systems, and heating systems.
The success of ITER, which aims to produce ten times the energy it consumes, holds transformative implications for global energy. It promises a large-scale, carbon-free energy source, substantially reducing environmental impacts like the greenhouse effect. Fusion power is inherently safe, with no risk of a runaway reaction, and uses fuel like deuterium, which is abundantly available in seawater. A successful ITER would pave the way for India and the world to build fusion reactors, ensuring long-term energy security.
Q6. How can India achieve energy independence through clean technology by 2047? How can biotechnology play a crucial role in this endeavour? (Answer in 150 words) 10
India's vision for energy independence by 2047 hinges on a multi-pronged clean technology strategy, aligned with its 'Panchamrit' climate goals. This involves aggressively expanding renewable capacity, especially solar and wind, and establishing India as a global hub for green hydrogen through the National Green Hydrogen Mission. The strategy also includes a three-fold expansion of nuclear power with a focus on Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and accelerating the adoption of Electric Vehicles (EVs) backed by domestic manufacturing.
Biotechnology plays a pivotal role in this transition.
Biofuels: It enables the production of bioethanol (from sugarcane and agricultural waste), biodiesel, and compressed biogas (CBG) through schemes like GOBARdhan, directly reducing fossil fuel imports.
Biomanufacturing: Under the BioE3 policy, it promotes bio-based alternatives like bioplastics and biochemicals, fostering a circular economy and reducing petrochemical dependence.
Waste-to-Energy: It facilitates converting agricultural residue into energy, tackling stubble burning and creating wealth from waste.
This integrated approach is crucial for achieving a sustainable and self-reliant energy future for a developed India@2047.
Q7. What is Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS)? What is the potential role of CCUS in tackling climate change? (Answer in 150 words) 10
Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is a suite of technologies designed to capture CO2 emissions from hard-to-abate sectors like steel, cement, power plants, and petrochemicals, or directly from the atmosphere. The captured CO2 is then either permanently stored in underground geological formations or utilized to create valuable products such as fuels (methanol, ethanol), chemicals, and building materials, thereby contributing to a circular economy.
Its potential role in tackling climate change is critical:
Decarbonises key industries that are responsible for up to 70% of emissions, which is essential for deep decarbonisation.
It is considered an important tool for India to achieve its Net-Zero by 2070 target and meet the Paris Agreement goals.
It enables a just energy transition by allowing cleaner use of India's coal reserves and supports sunrise sectors like coal gasification and the hydrogen economy, promoting a self-reliant economy.
However, its large-scale deployment is currently hindered by high costs, lack of commercial viability, and concerns that it might prolong fossil fuel dependency.
Q8. Seawater intrusion in the coastal aquifers is a major concern in India. What are the causes of seawater intrusion and the remedial measures to combat this hazard? (Answer in 150 words) 10
Seawater intrusion, the contamination of coastal freshwater aquifers by saline water, is a major environmental hazard in India, threatening drinking water supplies and agricultural productivity.
Causes:
Over-extraction of groundwater: This is the primary driver. Excessive pumping for agriculture, domestic, and industrial uses lowers the freshwater table, reversing the natural pressure gradient and allowing denser seawater to move inland.
Climate Change: Rising sea levels increase hydraulic pressure from the ocean, pushing saltwater into aquifers. More frequent and intense cyclones cause storm surges that inundate coastal areas and contaminate groundwater.
Coastal Degradation: Unregulated activities like sand mining, dredging, and construction degrade natural barriers like mangroves and dunes, facilitating intrusion.
Remedial Measures:
Sustainable Water Management: Reducing groundwater extraction through efficient irrigation (drip/sprinkler), crop diversification from water-intensive crops, and reusing treated wastewater.
Aquifer Recharge: Augmenting freshwater levels through artificial recharge structures like check-dams, percolation ponds, and rainwater harvesting to create a hydraulic barrier.
Ecosystem Restoration: Strengthening natural defences by planting mangroves (under the MISHTI scheme) and protecting coastal wetlands, coupled with strict enforcement of Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) norms.
Structural Solutions: Constructing subsurface barriers or dikes to physically block saltwater intrusion.
Q9. Terrorism is a global scourge. How has it manifested in India? Elaborate with contemporary examples. What are the counter measures adopted by the State? Explain. (Answer in 150 words)10
Terrorism in India manifests as a multi-pronged threat, fuelled by cross-border state sponsorship, domestic insurgency, and global radicalisation. Cross-border terrorism, primarily from Pakistan, continues to plague Jammu and Kashmir, with recent examples including the Reasi bus attack. Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) persists in central India, while the North-East faces insurgencies. Contemporarily, lone wolf attacks and radicalisation inspired by global outfits like ISIS are rising, as seen in the Coimbatore and Mangaluru blasts.
The State has adopted a multi-layered counter-terrorism strategy under a ‘zero-tolerance’ policy. This includes strengthening the legislative framework through the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and establishing specialised agencies like the National Investigation Agency (NIA). Operationally, India has conducted surgical strikes and enhanced border security with anti-drone technology. Internationally, India hosts ‘No Money for Terror’ conferences and advocates for a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT).
Q10. The Government of India recently stated that Left Wing Extremism (LWE) will be eliminated by 2026. What do you understand by LWE and how are the people affected by it? What measures have been taken by the government to eliminate LWE? (Answer in 150 words) 10
Left-Wing Extremism (LWE), or Naxalism, is an ideology aiming to overthrow the democratically elected government through violent revolution and armed struggle. It thrives on socio-economic grievances, underdevelopment, and the alienation of tribal communities.
People in affected areas, mainly central and eastern India, face violence, extortion, and disruption of developmental activities. Maoists plant IEDs, endangering civilians and security forces, and obstruct economic activities, pushing the marginalised deeper into poverty. This creates a climate of fear and hinders access to basic services.
The government has adopted a three-pronged strategy of security, development, and ensuring local rights under a 'zero-tolerance' policy. This includes strengthening security presence by deploying CAPFs and establishing new camps, alongside promoting development through schemes like Special Central Assistance (SCA) and building infrastructure. Surrender-cum-rehabilitation policies are also in place to bring extremists into the mainstream.
Q11. Explain how the Fiscal Health Index (FHI) can be used as a tool for assessing the fiscal performance of states in India. In what way would it encourage the states to adopt prudent and sustainable fiscal policies? (Answer in 250 words) 15
The Fiscal Health Index (FHI), recently released by NITI Aayog, is a comprehensive tool for assessing the fiscal performance of Indian states by providing a holistic, data-driven evaluation. Based on data from the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), the FHI ranks states across five key pillars: Quality of Expenditure, distinguishing between developmental and non-developmental spending; Revenue Mobilization, assessing a state’s ability to generate its own income; Fiscal Prudence, tracking deficit levels; the Debt Index, evaluating the overall debt burden; and Debt Sustainability, which measures the ability to service debt through growth. This multi-dimensional framework allows for an objective assessment of a state’s fiscal management, pinpointing specific areas of stress, such as Kerala's low quality of expenditure and debt sustainability issues.
The FHI encourages prudent fiscal policies in several ways. Firstly, by publishing state rankings, it fosters competitive federalism, nudging states to improve their performance and adopt best practices from top-performers like Odisha. This creates a positive feedback loop, motivating states to pursue better fiscal management. Secondly, it serves as a diagnostic tool that guides policymakers in formulating targeted reforms for fiscal consolidation and better resource management.
Thirdly, the index enhances transparency and public accountability, creating pressure on governments to avoid unsustainable populist schemes and manage finances responsibly. Finally, a strong FHI score can act as a positive signal to markets, potentially improving a state's creditworthiness and access to market borrowings at better rates, thus incentivising fiscal discipline. It aligns with the principle of performance-based incentives, encouraging states to prioritise long-term fiscal stability.
Q12. Discuss the rationale of the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme. What are its achievements? In what way can the functioning and outcomes of the scheme be improved?
(Answer in 250 words) 15
The Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme is a strategic policy to enhance India’s manufacturing capabilities, reduce import dependency, and integrate into global supply chains. Its rationale is to make India ‘Atmanirbhar’ (self-reliant) by offering financial incentives on incremental sales to attract domestic and foreign firms, thereby boosting domestic production, creating jobs, and improving cost-competitiveness.
Achievements: The scheme has seen remarkable success, especially in electronics manufacturing, transforming India into the world’s second-largest mobile phone manufacturer. Mobile phone exports surged from approximately $300 million in FY18 to over $11 billion in FY23. The scheme has attracted significant investment across 14 sectors, including pharmaceuticals, leading to the revival of domestic Penicillin G manufacturing after three decades. Overall, the scheme has led to investments of about ₹1.25 lakh crore, increased exports by ₹4 lakh crore, and transformed India’s export basket towards high-value goods.
Improvements: However, the scheme’s functioning can be improved. A key criticism is that incentives are linked to revenue rather than domestic value addition (DVA), often promoting assembly over deep manufacturing. Therefore, incentives should be directly linked to DVA. Issues like bureaucratic red tape and high import tariffs on components stymie competitiveness and need streamlining. Furthermore, there is a need to balance the focus on capital-intensive sectors like semiconductors, which show under-utilisation of funds and create fewer jobs, with more employment-intensive industries. The scheme's long-term sustainability must be weighed against its opportunity costs, such as potential investments in education and R&D.
Q13. Examine the factors responsible for depleting groundwater in India. What are the steps taken by the government to mitigate such depletion of groundwater? (Answer in 250 words) 15
India, the world's largest groundwater user, faces severe depletion due to a combination of agricultural, demographic, and environmental factors. The crisis threatens both food and water security.
Factors Responsible for Depletion:
Agricultural Over-extraction: Agriculture is the primary consumer, accounting for over 85% of groundwater extraction for irrigation. The Green Revolution's legacy promoted water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane, even in arid regions like Punjab and Haryana, supported by Minimum Support Prices (MSPs) and subsidised electricity for pumps. This has led to an alarming drop in water tables.
Rapid Urbanisation and Population Growth: A burgeoning population and unplanned urbanisation have increased demand for domestic and industrial use. The concretisation of surfaces in cities reduces natural rainwater infiltration, hindering aquifer recharge.
Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, inappropriate agricultural practices, and encroachment on wetlands and lakes have disrupted the natural hydrological cycle and reduced recharge potential.
Climate Change: Erratic monsoons, with fewer rainy days but more intense rainfall, increase surface runoff and reduce groundwater replenishment, while rising temperatures increase irrigation needs.
Pollution: Widespread contamination from industrial effluents, agricultural runoff (nitrates, pesticides), and untreated sewage renders groundwater unusable, increasing pressure on remaining clean aquifers.
Government Mitigation Steps:
The government has adopted a multi-pronged strategy:
Regulation and Governance: The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) was established to regulate groundwater development. It has introduced measures like a Water Conservation Fee for industrial users and guidelines for issuing No-Objection Certificates (NOCs) for extraction.
Scientific Management: The Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY) promotes participatory groundwater management at the Gram Panchayat level in water-stressed areas. The National Project on Aquifer Management (NAQUIM) focuses on mapping aquifers to enable data-driven, sustainable planning.
Conservation and Recharge: The Jal Shakti Abhiyan, with its ‘Catch the Rain’ campaign, creates mass awareness and encourages rainwater harvesting. Schemes like MGNREGA and Mission Amrit Sarovar are leveraged to create water conservation structures.
Improving Water Use Efficiency: The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) promotes micro-irrigation techniques like drip and sprinkler systems under its ‘Per Drop More Crop’ component.
Ensuring Drinking Water: The Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) mandates source sustainability measures, including groundwater recharge, to ensure long-term potable water supply to rural households.
Q14. Examine the scope of the food processing industries in India. Elaborate the measures taken by the government in the food processing industries for generating employment opportunities.
(Answer in 250 words) 15
The industry plays a vital role in reducing massive post-harvest losses, which are estimated at approximately ₹1,52,790 crore annually. Furthermore, its high labour intensity gives it the potential to generate 9 million jobs by 2024, with partnerships like the India-UAE food parks expected to create lakhs of non-farm agri-jobs.
The government has implemented several measures to generate employment opportunities in this sector:
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY): An umbrella scheme focused on creating modern infrastructure like Mega Food Parks and cold chains, aiming to generate over 5 lakh direct and indirect employment opportunities. Each park is envisaged to employ about 5,000 people.
Pradhan Mantri Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises (PMFME) Scheme: This centrally sponsored scheme targets the vast unorganised sector, which provides 74% of employment in food processing. It aims to generate 9 lakh skilled and semi-skilled jobs by providing financial and technical support.
Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: This scheme aims to create global food manufacturing champions and is expected to generate employment for nearly 2.5 lakh people by 2026-27.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Policy: The government allows 100% FDI through the automatic route in food processing, which has attracted over ₹50,000 crores in the last nine years, boosting job creation.
Q15. How does nanotechnology offer significant advancements in the field of agriculture? How can this technology help to uplift the socio-economic status of farmers? (Answer in 250 words) 15
Nanotechnology offers significant advancements in agriculture by enabling precision farming and enhancing resource-use efficiency. Nano-fertilisers, like Nano Urea and Nano DAP, are key innovations. These liquid formulations contain nanoparticles that allow for targeted nutrient delivery through foliar spray, boosting nutrient efficiency to over 80% compared to 30-40% for conventional fertilisers. This leads to higher crop yields, improved produce quality, and better plant resilience to stress. Furthermore, nanotechnology reduces chemical usage by up to 50%, promoting sustainable agriculture by preventing soil degradation and water pollution. Nano-sensors and nano-barcodes also offer smart solutions for monitoring soil health and produce quality.
This technology directly uplifts the socio-economic status of farmers. Increased income is a primary benefit, stemming from higher yields and reduced input costs. Nano-fertilisers are more economical and easier to transport and store than bulky conventional fertiliser bags, which is particularly beneficial for small and marginal farmers. Nanotechnology fosters new employment opportunities in rural areas, such as drone operators for spraying liquid fertilisers. The government’s ‘Namo Drone Didi’ initiative, which aims to provide drones to 15,000 women’s Self-Help Groups, links this technology to women's empowerment. By reducing dependence on imports and subsidies, it contributes to a more self-reliant and profitable agricultural sector (‘Atmanirbhar Krishi’).
Q16. India aims to become a semiconductor manufacturing hub. What are the challenges faced by the semiconductor industry in India? Mention the salient features of the India Semiconductor Mission. (Answer in 250 words) 15
India aims to become a global semiconductor manufacturing hub to achieve strategic autonomy and reduce import dependency, positioning itself as a key player in de-risking global supply chains from Chinese dominance.
Challenges Faced by the Industry: The semiconductor industry in India faces significant hurdles.
High Capital Investment: Establishing a semiconductor fabrication plant (fab) is extremely capital-intensive, requiring billions of dollars and having long gestation periods. Previous attempts failed due to resource mobilisation issues.
Infrastructural Needs: Fabs demand a massive, uninterrupted supply of ultra-pure water and stable power, which poses a considerable infrastructural challenge.
Skilled Talent Gap: There is a critical shortage of a highly skilled workforce in specialised areas like chip fabrication and packaging, with a projected deficit of 2.5 to 3 lakh professionals by 2027.
Fierce Global Competition: India competes with established players like Taiwan and South Korea, and nations like the U.S. and E.U. that offer huge subsidies through policies such as the CHIPS Act.
Weak Ancillary Ecosystem: India lacks a robust domestic ecosystem for raw materials (like rare earths), components, and specialised manufacturing equipment, leading to high import dependency.
Salient Features of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM): Launched in 2021, the ISM is a comprehensive programme to develop a sustainable semiconductor and display ecosystem.
Financial Outlay: The mission has a massive outlay of ₹76,000 crore ($10 billion).
Fiscal Support: It provides substantial incentives, including fiscal support of up to 50% of the project cost for companies setting up semiconductor and display fabs in India.
Holistic Approach: The mission comprises four schemes targeting different parts of the ecosystem: (1) Semiconductor Fabs, (2) Display Fabs, (3) Compound Semiconductors/ATMP facilities, and (4) the Design Linked Incentive (DLI) Scheme to foster domestic design capabilities.
Nodal Agency and Workforce Development: The ISM acts as the independent nodal agency, led by global experts, for implementation. It also focuses on developing a skilled workforce through initiatives like the Chips2Startup (C2S) programme.
Q17. Mineral resources are fundamental to the country’s economy and these are exploited by mining. Why is mining considered an environmental hazard? Explain the remedial measures required to reduce the environmental hazard due to mining. (Answer in 250 words) 15
Mineral resources are crucial to India’s economy, but their exploitation through mining poses significant environmental hazards. Mining is considered a hazard due to its wide-ranging adverse impacts on land, water, air, and biodiversity.
Why Mining is an Environmental Hazard:
Land Degradation: Mining activities, especially open-pit mining, cause extensive deforestation, soil erosion, and land subsidence. Unregulated practices like rat-hole mining and sand mining severely degrade land and riverine ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Mining contaminates both surface and groundwater. The discharge of toxic waste from metal mining affects millions living on floodplains. Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) from coal and other mines contaminates streams and rivers, while chemicals like cyanide and heavy metals (lead, arsenic, mercury) from tailings leach into water sources, posing grave health risks.
Air Pollution: The extraction and processing of minerals release considerable dust, noxious fumes, and CO2, contributing to air pollution and the greenhouse effect. This affects the health of miners and nearby communities, causing respiratory diseases like silicosis and pneumoconiosis.
Biodiversity Loss: Mining operations destroy natural habitats and disrupt ecosystems, leading to a significant loss of flora and fauna. Mining in ecologically sensitive zones like the Himalayas and Western Ghats has irreversible impacts.
Remedial Measures:
To mitigate these hazards, a multi-pronged strategy is required:
Policy and Legal Framework: India’s National Mineral Policy, 2019, aims to establish a transparent, effective, and sustainable mining framework. Strengthening the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process is crucial to prevent it from being a mere formality.
Sustainable and Scientific Mining: Adopting scientific mining methods and ensuring mine closure and reclamation plans are integral to the project cycle helps restore the landscape. The use of cleaner technologies, like alternative fuels for heavy machinery, can reduce the carbon footprint.
Community Welfare and Participation: The District Mineral Foundation (DMF), established under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, is designed to work for the benefit of people and areas affected by mining. Ensuring these funds are used effectively for long-term sustainable livelihoods is essential.
Monitoring and Regulation: The government promotes sustainable practices through the Star Rating System for mines. Using modern technology like drones for surveys and monitoring enhances transparency and enforcement.
Q18. Write a review on India’s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement (2015) and mention how these have been further strengthened in COP26 (2021). In this direction, how has the first Nationally Determined Contribution intended by India been updated in 2022?
(Answer in 250 words) 15
Under the Paris Agreement (2015), India's climate action is guided by the principles of equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR). Its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) included three key targets: reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33-35% by 2030 from 2005 levels; achieving 40% of electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030; and creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030.
At COP26 in Glasgow (2021), India significantly strengthened its climate commitments through the 'Panchamrit' pledges. The most notable of these was the long-term goal of achieving Net Zero emissions by 2070. The 2030 targets were also enhanced, including reducing carbon intensity by 45% and sourcing 50% of energy from renewables. India also played a key role in ensuring the final agreement called for a "phase-down" rather than a "phase-out" of coal.
In August 2022, India formally updated its NDC, translating the Glasgow pledges into official commitments. The updated NDC commits to:
Reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030 from the 2005 level.
Achieving about 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030. The target for creating an additional carbon sink remained unchanged. This demonstrates a progressive enhancement of its climate ambition, balancing developmental needs with environmental responsibility.
Q19. What are the major challenges to internal security and peace process in the North-Eastern States? Map the various peace accords and agreements initiated by the government in the past decade. (Answer in 250 words) 15
Internal security in India’s North-Eastern states has improved, yet significant challenges rooted in historical grievances, ethnic complexities, and geographical vulnerabilities persist, threatening the fragile peace process.
Major Challenges to Internal Security:
Ethnic Conflicts & Unresolved Insurgencies: Deep-seated ethnic rivalries, exemplified by the recent violence in Manipur between the Meitei and Kuki-Zo communities, remain a primary threat. While many groups have joined peace talks, core issues behind insurgency often remain unresolved. Demands for greater autonomy and separate states like 'Frontier Nagaland' persist, and the final Naga political settlement is stalled over demands for a separate flag and constitution.
Inter-State Border Disputes: Long-standing boundary conflicts, originating from colonial-era cartography, continue to cause friction and occasional violent clashes between states like Assam-Meghalaya and Assam-Mizoram.
Porous Borders & External Factors: Instability in neighbouring Myanmar fuels an influx of refugees, arms smuggling, and a narco-terrorism nexus, which exacerbates local tensions. The Centre's plan to scrap the Free Movement Regime (FMR) is contested by states like Nagaland and Mizoram, highlighting a conflict between national security imperatives and cross-border ethnic ties.
Development Deficit: Despite recent infrastructure pushes, historical neglect and a lack of economic opportunities contribute to alienation among the youth, making them vulnerable to recruitment by insurgent groups.
Peace Accords in the Past Decade:
The government has pursued a policy of dialogue, resulting in several key agreements:
Naga Peace Process: A Framework Agreement with NSCN-IM (2015) and an Agreed Position with Naga National Political Groups (NNPGs) (2017) were signed to find a solution to the decades-old issue. A ceasefire was also signed with NSCN (K) Niki Group (2021).
Assam Accords: The Bodo Peace Accord (2020), Karbi Anglong Agreement (2021), and a pact with the pro-talks faction of ULFA (2023) have significantly reduced extremism.
Other Accords: An agreement was signed with the NLFT in Tripura (2019) and a peace pact with the UNLF (Pambei faction) in Manipur (2023).
Boundary Agreements: Historic agreements were signed to resolve border disputes between Assam-Meghalaya (2022) and Assam-Arunachal Pradesh (2023).
Q20. Why is maritime security vital to protect India’s sea trade? Discuss maritime and coastal security challenges and the way forward. (Answer in 250 words) 15
Maritime security is vital for India's economic prosperity as over 95% of its trade by volume and 70% by value transits through the sea. India's growing economy is directly linked to sea-based trade, making the security of Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs) crucial for its energy security and national interests. The stability of this maritime order underpins global economic progress.
Maritime and Coastal Security Challenges: India faces a spectrum of challenges that threaten its sea trade and coastal integrity.
Geopolitical Contestations: China's expanding naval footprint and strategic port developments in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) under its 'String of Pearls' strategy pose a significant challenge. A collusive threat from China and Pakistan further complicates regional security.
Transnational Organised Crimes: Piracy, armed robbery, and drone attacks on merchant vessels, especially in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, disrupt trade routes and escalate costs. India’s vast coastline is also vulnerable to maritime terrorism, as demonstrated by the 26/11 Mumbai attacks, and the smuggling of narcotics and arms.
Non-Traditional Threats: Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing by foreign vessels depletes marine resources and impacts coastal livelihoods. Environmental disasters like oil spills and marine pollution also pose significant risks.
The Way Forward: A multi-pronged and collaborative approach is essential:
Capability Enhancement: India is strengthening its naval power, aiming to be a 170-ship force by 2035 and acting as a 'net security provider' in the IOR.
Enhanced Surveillance: Strengthening Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) through institutions like the Information Fusion Centre-Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) and coastal security exercises like 'Sea Vigil' is critical.
International Cooperation: Active diplomacy through frameworks like SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) and partnerships with like-minded nations through forums such as the Quad's IPMDA initiative are vital for ensuring a free, open, and rules-based maritime order.