01. Discuss the salient features of the Harappan architecture. (Answer in 150 words) 10
Harappan architecture, a hallmark of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, is renowned for its sophisticated urban planning and utilitarian nature. A key feature was the systematic town planning, often on a grid pattern, with roads intersecting at right angles. Cities were typically divided into a fortified Citadel, likely for the ruling class and public structures, and a Lower Town for common residences.
The large-scale use of high-quality, standardised burnt bricks in a 1:2:4 ratio was a significant advancement over contemporary civilisations like Egypt, which primarily used dried bricks. The architecture's most unique achievement was the advanced covered drainage system; almost every house was connected to street drains, reflecting an unparalleled concern for sanitation and public health in the ancient world.
While lacking monumental palaces or temples like in Mesopotamia, Harappans built impressive public structures like the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro for ritual purposes and large granaries for storage. Additionally, sites like Dholavira showcase sophisticated water management systems with reservoirs and dams.
02. Examine the main aspects of Akbar’s religious syncretism. (Answer in 150 words) 10
Akbar's policy of religious syncretism was driven by his spiritual quest and the political necessity of unifying a diverse empire. Its evolution is marked by several key aspects.
A cornerstone was the establishment of the Ibadat Khana (Hall of Prayer) at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575, where scholars from all faiths—including Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism—were invited for theological debates. These discussions shaped his core philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace with all), promoting universal tolerance and harmony.
Administratively, he abolished the discriminatory Jizyah (1564) and pilgrim tax (1563) on non-Muslims. He furthered cultural integration by commissioning Persian translations of Sanskrit scriptures like the Mahabharata (as Razmnama) and Ramayana.
In 1582, he promulgated Tauhid-i-Ilahi (Divine Monotheism), often called Din-i-Ilahi. This was not a new religion but a Sufi-style order that synthesized the best principles of various faiths, emphasizing monotheism and ethical conduct.
03. ‘The sculptors filled the Chandella artform with resilient vigor and breadth of life.’ Elucidate. (Answer in 150 words) 10
Chandela art, flourishing between the 9th and 13th centuries, notably at the Khajuraho temple complex, is a testament to the resilient vigour and breadth of life infused by its sculptors. This is elucidated through two primary aspects.
First, the ‘resilient vigour’ is evident in the dynamic and sensuous portrayal of figures. Rejecting static forms, the sculptors used twisting poses like tribhanga to create a sense of rhythmic movement and energy. The human forms are full-bodied, celebrating life with a naturalism that makes the stone seem to pulsate with vitality. This creates an animated throng of celestial beings, humans, and animals, turning the temple walls into a vibrant tableau.
Second, the ‘breadth of life’ is captured through an unparalleled thematic diversity. The carvings are not confined to religious iconography but encompass a holistic view of medieval life. They depict secular scenes of musicians, dancers, and warriors alongside divine beings and mythological narratives. Famously, the erotic mithuna sculptures explore human love and intimacy with remarkable frankness, representing auspiciousness and the celebration of life in all its facets. The Kandariya Mahadeva temple is a prime example of this magnificent synthesis.
04. How are climate change and the sea level rise affecting the very existence of many island nations? Discuss with examples. (Answer in 150 words)10
Climate change and the associated sea-level rise pose a grave existential threat to many low-lying island nations. These nations, which have contributed negligibly to historical emissions, are disproportionately bearing the brunt of the climate crisis.
The primary impact is the accelerated rise in sea levels, driven by melting glaciers and thermal expansion of oceans. A study notes the rate of sea-level rise has doubled between the first decade of satellite records and the last. This leads to permanent submergence of land, coastal erosion, and saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers, threatening agriculture and drinking water supplies. For example, Tuvalu faces complete submergence and plans to create a digital version of itself in the metaverse.
Furthermore, warmer oceans fuel more frequent and intense extreme weather events like cyclones. Vanuatu, for instance, was devastated by Cyclone Pam, which wiped out 95% of its crops.
Ultimately, these factors trigger forced displacement, turning entire populations into climate refugees. Nations like Fiji are already relocating dozens of vulnerable villages inland.
05. What are non-farm primary activities? How are these activities related to physiographic features in India? Discuss with suitable examples. (Answer in 150 words)10
Non-farm primary activities involve the direct extraction of natural resources, excluding crop farming. These activities, such as mining, forestry, fishing, and pastoralism, are crucial for diversifying rural livelihoods beyond agriculture.
The location of these activities in India is intrinsically linked to its diverse physiographic features.
Mining and quarrying are concentrated in the mineral-rich Peninsular Plateau, particularly the Chota Nagpur region of Jharkhand, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh, and the Aravalli range. Northeast India, an extension of this plateau, also has significant coal and mineral deposits.
Forestry, involving the collection of timber, fuel wood, and medicinal herbs, is predominant in the forested slopes of the Himalayas and the Western Ghats.
Fishing is a primary occupation along India's extensive Coastal Plains and Island groups. Inland fishing is also significant in the river systems of the Northern Plains, such as the Ganga and Brahmaputra.
Pastoralism, or animal rearing, is practised by communities like the Gaddis and Bakarwals in the high-altitude pastures of the Himalayas and in the arid regions of Rajasthan.
06. Explain briefly the ecological and economic benefits of solar energy generation in India with suitable examples. (Answer in 150 words)10
Solar energy generation in India offers profound ecological and economic benefits, aligning with the nation's sustainable development and energy security goals.
Ecologically, solar power is a cornerstone of India's climate action strategy. As a clean energy source, it significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions, helping India advance towards its ambitious NDC target of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030 and Net Zero emissions by 2070. By displacing coal-fired power, which accounts for nearly half of India's electricity generation, it directly combats air pollution. Furthermore, large-scale solar parks are often developed on barren or fallow land, such as the Bhadla Solar Park in Rajasthan, promoting sustainable land use.
Economically, solar energy enhances energy security by reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels, thereby saving valuable foreign exchange. Solar power has achieved remarkable cost-competitiveness, with tariffs falling below conventional sources. It is a major job creator, with the potential to generate millions of jobs in manufacturing, installation, and maintenance. Schemes like PM-KUSUM are transforming farmers from annadatas (food providers) to urjadatas (energy providers) by enabling them to sell surplus solar power, thus augmenting rural incomes. Meanwhile, the PM Surya Ghar Yojana provides households with free electricity, resulting in annual savings of ₹15,000-18,000.
07. What are Tsunamis ? How and where are they formed ? What are their consequences ? Explain with examples. (Answer in 150 words)10
A Tsunami, a Japanese term for "harbour wave," is a series of powerful ocean waves caused by large-scale, abrupt disturbances of the sea floor. While often called tidal waves, they are not related to tides but are seismic sea waves.
They are primarily formed by powerful underwater earthquakes (magnitude >6.5), especially along subduction zones where tectonic plates collide. Other significant causes include submarine landslides and volcanic eruptions, which can generate destructive local tsunamis within minutes. Most tsunamis—about 80%—originate in the geologically active Pacific "Ring of Fire". For India, key tsunamigenic zones are the Java-Sumatra region in the Indian Ocean and the Makran region in the Arabian Sea.
The consequences are catastrophic. Travelling up to 800 kmph in deep oceans, the waves build to enormous heights near the coast, causing massive flooding, destruction of infrastructure, and immense loss of life. For example, the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, triggered by a quake off Sumatra, killed over 230,000 people across 14 countries and devastated India's coast. Similarly, the 2011 Japan Tsunami led to the Fukushima nuclear disaster.
08. How does smart city in India, address the issues of urban poverty and distributive justice ? (Answer in 150 words)10
The Smart Cities Mission (SCM) officially aims to improve quality of life through "sustainable and inclusive development". Theoretically, it addresses urban poverty by focusing on core infrastructure like affordable housing for the poor and using technology for better delivery of services like water and sanitation. It also envisions convergence with welfare schemes like PMAY-U (housing), DAY-NULM (livelihoods), and PM-SVANidhi (for street vendors) to support marginalized communities.
However, its approach to distributive justice is highly contested. Critics argue the Area-Based Development (ABD) model concentrates on small, often affluent, enclaves, bypassing areas where most urban poor reside. This tech-centric, capital-intensive focus often prioritises beautification over the basic needs of the poor. More critically, SCM projects have led to the displacement of slum dwellers and street vendors, exacerbating their vulnerability instead of alleviating poverty. Thus, without a genuine shift towards people-centric, participatory planning, the mission risks deepening urban inequality.
09. The ethos of civil service in India stand for the combination of professionalism with nationalistic consciousness – Elucidate. (Answer in 150 words)10
The ethos of the Indian civil service, envisioned as the ‘Steel Frame of India’ by Sardar Patel, is a unique synthesis of professionalism and a deeply ingrained nationalistic consciousness.
Professionalism is rooted in the meritocratic and impartial recruitment process conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), ensuring that selection is based on competence rather than patronage. This professional character is further defined by adherence to constitutional principles, rule of law, political neutrality, and accountability. Civil servants are expected to implement policies efficiently and offer unbiased advice to the political executive, forming the engine room of modern governance.
This professionalism is combined with a strong nationalistic consciousness, which mandates upholding India’s sovereignty, unity, and integrity. All-India Services are designed as key instruments of national integration, requiring officers to transcend regional, linguistic, or sectarian loyalties to serve the nation as a whole. Their fundamental duty is nation-building and promoting the welfare of the people, guided by the constitutional spirit of fraternity.
10. Do you think that globalization results in only an aggressive consumer culture ? Justify your answer. (Answer in 150 words)10
While globalisation significantly fosters an aggressive consumer culture, it is an oversimplification to claim this is its only result. Globalisation is a multi-dimensional phenomenon with widespread economic, social, and cultural impacts.
Promotion of Consumer Culture: Globalisation often leads to cultural homogenisation, where the culture of economically dominant Western societies leaves its imprint on others. This process is driven by multinational corporations (MNCs), global advertising, and media that actively promote a "culture of consumption" where spending is valorised. In India, this is visible through the rising popularity of foreign brands, fast food, and Western fashion, especially among urban youth. This consumerism is often aspirational, with individuals flaunting expensive goods to signal success and wealth.
Broader Impacts Beyond Consumerism: However, globalization's effects are far more diverse:
Economic Integration and Prosperity: It has integrated India into the global economy, creating jobs in sectors like IT, services, and manufacturing, and enabling access to new technologies and markets.
Cultural Exchange and Glocalization: The process is not a one-way street. It has spurred 'glocalization', where global products are adapted to local cultures, like McDonald’s offering vegetarian options in India. It has also provided a global platform for Indian culture, including spirituality, handicrafts, and cinema.
Social and Political Changes: It facilitates the exchange of ideas related to democracy, human rights, and social justice, leading to shifts in traditional social norms, such as in family structures and marriage.
Therefore, while an aggressive consumer culture is a major consequence of market-driven globalisation, it is not the sole outcome. The process brings both challenges like inequality and cultural erosion, and opportunities for economic growth and cultural synthesis.
11. Mahatma Joti Rao Phule’s writings and efforts of social reforms touched issues of almost all subaltern classes. Discuss. (Answer in 250 words)15
Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, a pioneering 19th-century social reformer, articulated a revolutionary vision that addressed the interconnected issues of almost all subaltern classes, fundamentally challenging the Brahminical hegemony. His efforts were not fragmented but formed a holistic critique of a social structure built on graded inequality.
Phule’s primary focus was on the Shudras (lower castes/OBCs) and Ati-Shudras (untouchables/Dalits). Through his seminal work Gulamgiri (Slavery), he deconstructed the myth of Aryan superiority, positing that the lower castes were the original inhabitants enslaved by Aryan Brahmins. He established the Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Truth-Seekers) in 1873, which aimed to liberate these classes through education and rationalism, promoting marriages without Brahmin priests or exploitative rituals. He is credited with first using the term ‘Dalit’ to describe the oppressed masses.
His work for women’s emancipation was pathbreaking. Recognizing that patriarchy and caste were intertwined, he, along with his wife Savitribai Phule, started the first school for girls in India in 1848. They established several schools for both girls and untouchable children, challenging traditions that denied them education. He also championed the cause of widows, opening an ashram for them and advocating for their remarriage to combat practices like sati and infanticide.
Furthermore, Phule addressed the plight of the peasantry and working class (Bahujans). His book Shetkaryacha Asud (The Cultivator’s Whipcord) exposed the exploitation of farmers by landlords, moneylenders, and the colonial bureaucracy. By establishing night schools for peasants and workers, he sought to empower the entire Bahujan community.
Phule’s holistic approach, which viewed caste, gender, and class oppression as inseparable, made his social reforms uniquely comprehensive, inspiring future leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and shaping the discourse of social justice in India.
12. Trace India’s consolidation process during early phase of independence in terms of polity, economy, education and international relations. (Answer in 250 words)15
In the early years of independence, India embarked on a monumental consolidation process to overcome its colonial legacy and build a sovereign, democratic nation. This was pursued through strategic initiatives in polity, economy, education, and international relations.
Polity: The foremost task was political integration, achieved by merging over 560 princely states into the Indian Union, a feat led by Sardar Patel. States acceded control over Defence, External Affairs, and Communications. The adoption of the Constitution in 1950 established a secular, democratic republic with a strong central government to counter fissiparous tendencies. Subsequently, the linguistic reorganization of states under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, while initially contentious, redrew internal boundaries to accommodate regional aspirations, thereby strengthening national unity in the long run.
Economy: To address the inherited colonial economic backwardness, India adopted a planned development model through Five-Year Plans, with growth being the most urgent concern. The Nehruvian era focused on building a self-reliant, mixed economy with a strong public sector at its core, establishing "temples of modern India" like dams and heavy industries to build a robust industrial base. Land reforms were also initiated to dismantle the feudal agrarian structure.
Education: The government focused on tackling mass illiteracy by establishing a national education system. A major challenge was the language policy. The three-language formula was adopted to balance the status of Hindi, English, and regional languages. However, significant opposition in southern states led to the Official Languages Act, 1963, assuring the indefinite continuation of English as an associate official language.
International Relations: Navigating the Cold War bipolarity, India championed the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) to maintain its strategic autonomy. Its foreign policy was guided by the principles of Panchsheel and a strong anti-colonial and anti-imperialist stance, seeking solidarity with newly independent Afro-Asian nations. However, relations with neighbours like Pakistan and China remained challenging, marked by conflict.
13. The French Revolution has enduring relevance to the contemporary world. Explain. (Answer in 250 words)15
The French Revolution of 1789 was a watershed event that profoundly altered the course of modern world history. Its core ideals of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity became the watchwords of the modern state, and its legacy remains deeply relevant today, shaping contemporary political thought, social movements, and the concept of the nation-state.
The revolution’s most enduring political legacy is the principle of popular sovereignty, establishing that power emanates from the people, not an absolute monarch. This idea underpins modern republicanism and democracy. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaimed universal rights and equality before the law, concepts that inspired constitutionalism globally. These ideals fueled anti-colonial movements and influenced Indian reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy. Contemporary protests for civil liberties and challenges to authoritarian regimes worldwide echo this revolutionary spirit.
Socially, the revolution dismantled a society based on feudal privilege, championing social mobility. The idea that even a "pawn could become powerful" was a driving force. This quest for equality continues in modern struggles against discrimination and economic inequality. Recent protests in France against unpopular economic policies and social unrest over racial polarisation are contemporary manifestations of these enduring tensions.
Furthermore, the revolution gave the first clear expression of modern nationalism, transforming subjects into citizens of a sovereign nation-state. This concept inspired movements for self-determination and the creation of new nations, a process that defined the 20th century. Today, debates on national identity and the rise of populism continue to engage with the revolution’s complex heritage.
14. Give a geographical explanation of the distribution of off-shore oil reserves of the world. How are they different from the on-shore occurrences of oil reserves? (Answer in 250 words)15
Off-shore oil reserves are hydrocarbon deposits found beneath the seabed, primarily located on the continental shelf and within a country's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Their global distribution is dictated by specific geological conditions linked to ancient marine sedimentary basins.
Geographical Distribution: These reserves form from organic matter (kerogen) trapped in sedimentary rocks of marine origin, often accumulating in structures like anticlines and fault traps. Consequently, major off-shore reserves are concentrated in regions with extensive continental shelves. Key global hotspots include:
The Persian Gulf, the world’s largest oil-producing region, with vast reserves along the coasts of Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE, and Kuwait.
The North Sea, a crucial source for Europe exploited by countries like the U.K. and Norway.
The Gulf of Mexico, a significant production zone for the U.S..
Other major zones include the South China Sea, Caspian Sea, and off the coasts of Brazil and West Africa. In India, primary offshore reserves are in Mumbai High, Bassein fields (Arabian Sea), and the Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basins (Bay of Bengal).
Difference from On-shore Reserves:
Location: Off-shore oil is extracted from the seabed, while on-shore oil is drilled from the land surface.
Extraction & Cost: Off-shore drilling is technologically complex, riskier, and significantly more expensive, requiring specialised platforms and underwater pipelines. On-shore extraction is relatively simpler and cheaper.
Environmental Risks: Off-shore operations pose a higher risk of catastrophic oil spills that are difficult to contain and devastate marine ecosystems. On-shore spills, while damaging, can be more localised and relatively easier to manage.
15. How can Artificial Intelligence (AI) and drones be effectively used along with GIS and RS techniques in locational and areal planning? (Answer in 250 words)15
The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and drones with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) techniques creates a powerful, data-driven framework for locational and areal planning, transforming urban, rural, and environmental management.
1. Enhanced Data Acquisition: Drones provide high-resolution, real-time, micro-level data, overcoming the limitations of traditional satellite-based RS in precision, especially for small areas or during cloudy weather. This is crucial for detailed land mapping, as demonstrated by India's SVAMITVA scheme, which uses drones to create property cards in rural areas, thereby reducing land disputes. Similarly, urban local bodies like GHMC use drones for GIS-based property mapping and infrastructure planning.
2. Intelligent Analysis and Predictive Modelling: AI and Machine Learning (ML) algorithms process these vast geospatial datasets to automate analysis and generate predictive insights.
Urban Planning: AI can analyze drone imagery to monitor illegal constructions, plan smart city infrastructure like intelligent transport systems, and improve overall urban management and service delivery.
Rural Development: In agriculture, AI enables precision farming by analyzing drone data on crop health and soil conditions to optimize resource use. It also supports the monitoring of welfare schemes like MGNREGS.
Environmental and Disaster Management: AI models can predict flood or landslide-prone zones by analyzing real-time data, monitor deforestation, and manage forest fires, enabling proactive mitigation strategies.
This synergy transforms raw geospatial data into actionable intelligence, supporting evidence-based policymaking and strengthening governance.
16. Discuss how the changes in shape and sizes of continents and ocean basins of the planet take place due to tectonic movements of the crustal masses. (Answer in 250 words)15
The shape and size of continents and ocean basins are in a constant state of flux, driven by the tectonic movements of crustal masses, a process explained by the theory of Plate Tectonics. According to this theory, the Earth’s lithosphere is fragmented into several rigid tectonic plates that move horizontally over the semi-molten asthenosphere, powered by convection currents in the mantle.
These changes primarily occur at plate boundaries:
Convergent Boundaries (Destruction and Collision): Where plates collide, continents are reshaped and ocean basins shrink.
Continent-continent collision results in intense folding and faulting, creating massive mountain ranges. The quintessential example is the formation of the Himalayas, which occurred when the Indian plate, after splitting from Gondwanaland, drifted northwards and collided with the Eurasian plate, closing the ancient Tethys Sea. This process is ongoing, causing the Himalayas to continue rising.
Oceanic-continental convergence leads to the subduction of the denser oceanic plate, forming volcanic arcs on the continent and deep oceanic trenches, thereby altering continental margins.
Divergent Boundaries (Creation): Where plates move apart, new crust is formed, leading to the creation or expansion of ocean basins.
On continents, this process creates rift valleys, such as the East African Rift Valley, which can evolve into new oceans over millions of years.
Under the sea, sea-floor spreading occurs at mid-oceanic ridges, where magma rises to form new oceanic crust, pushing the old crust away and expanding the ocean basin.
Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past each other, causing significant earthquakes but generally not creating or destroying crust.
Thus, the tectonic cycle of creation at divergent boundaries and destruction at convergent ones continuously reconfigures the Earth's surface, explaining continental drift and the life cycle of ocean basins.
17. Discuss the distribution and density of population in the Ganga River Basin with special reference to land, soil and water resources. (Answer in 250 words)15
The Ganga River Basin is India's largest and most populous river basin, supporting nearly 40% of the country's population. Its high population density and distribution are intrinsically linked to its rich endowment of land, soil, and water resources, which have historically fostered dense human settlements and intensive agriculture.
Land and Soil Resources: The basin is characterized by vast, fertile alluvial plains formed by the Ganga and its tributaries. This fertile land, known as the Indo-Gangetic Plain, combined with a flat topography, is ideal for agriculture and the development of extensive settlement networks. The region’s agricultural prosperity, home to the Green Revolution, supports the intensive cultivation of staple crops like rice and wheat, which sustains a dense population. Consequently, states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal exhibit very high population densities.
Water Resources: The perennial Ganga river system provides an abundant and reliable source of surface water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use. Furthermore, the basin's aquifers are among the world's largest, making groundwater a critical resource. Groundwater is the backbone of the region's agriculture and drinking water security, meeting about two-thirds of irrigation needs and 80% of drinking water requirements. This easy availability of both surface and groundwater has been pivotal in supporting high agricultural productivity and, consequently, dense populations.
However, this high population concentration exerts immense pressure on resources. The agricultural boom, sustained by tube wells, has led to alarming groundwater depletion, with water levels declining significantly. Moreover, rapid urbanization and industrialization have resulted in severe pollution of the Ganga, contaminating this vital resource. Therefore, while the Ganga basin’s resource wealth explains its high population density, sustainable management of its land and water is critical to avert ecological crises and ensure the long-term well-being of its vast population.
18. How do you account for the growing fast food industries given that there are increased health concerns in modern society? Illustrate your answer with the Indian experience. (Answer in 250 words)15
The growth of the fast food industry in modern society, despite increased health concerns, can be attributed to a confluence of powerful socio-economic, cultural, and market-driven forces. The Indian experience provides a compelling illustration of this paradox.
A primary driver is the profound socio-economic transformation marked by rapid urbanization, rising disposable incomes, and changing lifestyles. As a larger portion of the population moves to cities and joins the formal workforce, there is less time for traditional cooking, making convenient, ready-to-eat meals an attractive option. This trend is amplified by India's large youth population, which is a key target demographic for the fast food industry.
Furthermore, the industry’s growth is propelled by aggressive and sophisticated marketing strategies. Food companies invest billions in advertising to promote "tasty" and "affordable" processed foods, often using celebrity endorsements and targeting younger consumers. The rise of social media food influencers has also normalized the consumption of fast food as a lifestyle choice. Affordability and accessibility are critical factors; unhealthy, ultra-processed foods are often cheaper and more widely available than nutritious alternatives, having penetrated deep into rural areas and schools. Consequently, India's ultra-processed food sector grew at a compound annual rate of nearly 13.4% between 2011 and 2021.
This "nutrition transition" directly correlates with India’s escalating public health crisis, characterized by a "double burden of malnutrition" and a surge in non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like diabetes, hypertension, and obesity. While health awareness is growing, the convenience, affordability, and cultural appeal engineered by the fast food industry often override health considerations for the average consumer.
19. Achieving sustainable growth with emphasis on environmental protection could come into conflict with poor people’s needs in a country like India – Comment. (Answer in 250 words)15
Achieving sustainable growth with an emphasis on environmental protection in a country like India presents a complex challenge, often appearing to conflict with the immediate needs of the poor. However, this conflict is not absolute but is largely a consequence of the prevailing, unsustainable development model.
The Perceived Conflict: The primary tension arises from India's imperative to alleviate poverty, which necessitates rapid economic growth. This growth is heavily dependent on energy, with coal being a major source. An abrupt shift from fossil fuels, as demanded by stringent environmental norms, could create "insurmountable difficulties" in securing energy access for the poor and achieving Sustainable Development Goals. The concept of a "just transition" highlights that a rapid move to renewable energy could displace millions whose livelihoods depend on the coal economy, halting generational mobility for disadvantaged groups. Similarly, large-scale development or conservation projects, such as dams or strict forest laws, can displace local and tribal communities who depend on natural resources for subsistence.
Reconciling the Goals: The narrative of "development versus environment" is often a false dichotomy. The poor are the primary victims of environmental degradation, suffering disproportionately from air and water pollution, climate-induced disasters, and resource depletion. Their livelihoods are often directly linked to the health of natural ecosystems.
The real conflict lies between a flawed, inequitable growth model and the needs of both the poor and the environment. The solution lies in finding "common ground between economic development and climate mitigation efforts". India’s economic roadmap must shift towards a new paradigm that creates equal opportunities and dignified livelihoods "without harming the natural environment". This involves investing in green technologies that create jobs, promoting sustainable livelihood alternatives like ecotourism, and ensuring that development does not come at the cost of human suffering. Ultimately, strengthening the livelihood security of the poor is a prerequisite for successful conservation.
20. Does tribal development in India centre around two axes, those of displacement and of rehabilitation? Give your opinion. (Answer in 250 words)15
To state that tribal development in India has centred solely around the two axes of displacement and rehabilitation is a compelling but incomplete assessment. While these two issues have tragically dominated the lived experience of Adivasi communities due to a flawed national development model, the official policy framework has historically encompassed broader objectives, even if their implementation has been severely lacking.
The Dominance of Displacement and Flawed Rehabilitation: Undeniably, the pursuit of 'national development'—characterised by large dams, mines, and industrial projects—has disproportionately victimised tribal populations. Projects like the Sardar Sarovar and Polavaram dams have displaced hundreds of thousands of Adivasis, often driving them to "greater destitution". This process of dispossession, which began in the colonial era, continued post-independence, severing tribes from their ancestral lands and forests, the bedrock of their livelihood and cultural identity.
Furthermore, rehabilitation efforts have been inconsistent and often inadequate. The contrast between the formal Bru rehabilitation plan in Tripura and the neglect of the displaced Gutti Koya tribals—who are denied tribal status in their new locations and receive minimal support on "humanitarian grounds"—highlights a systemic failure. This reality makes displacement and rehabilitation a tragically prominent axis of the tribal experience.
Broader Axes of Tribal Development Policy: However, the stated policy has always been more complex. The post-independence approach, guided by Nehru's 'Panchsheel' for tribals, aimed for integration while preserving their distinct culture and autonomy. Constitutional safeguards like the Fifth and Sixth Schedules, and policies like the Tribal Sub-Plan, were designed for holistic socio-economic development.
Contemporary schemes reflect this broader ambition. The PM-PVTG Development Mission aims to provide basic amenities to the most vulnerable groups, while the Pradhan Mantri Adi Adarsh Gram Yojna seeks to create 'model tribal villages'. Initiatives like the Forest Rights Act, 2006, aim to restore rights over resources, and schemes like Van Dhan Yojana promote tribal entrepreneurship.
Conclusion: In my opinion, the narrative of tribal development is not centred on displacement and rehabilitation by policy design, but by the tragic failure of a conflicting, mainstream development paradigm. Official policy articulates axes of welfare, empowerment, and cultural preservation. However, these are systematically undermined by an aggressive, resource-extraction model of national growth. The result is a cruel paradox where displacement and failed rehabilitation become the most visible outcomes, overshadowing the state's intended developmental agenda.